Abstract
Background: Rural/nonmetropolitan (nonmetro) counties face known barriers to comprehensive cancer care compared with metropolitan (metro) counties, which may impact the outcomes for lymphoma patients. We evaluated the impact metro vs nonmetro status on outcomes after a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in the context of clinical, demographic, and lifestyle factors.
Methods: Of 7724 participants enrolled in the prospective LEO cohort study from 2015-2020, 7610 (98.5%) had their county of residence at diagnosis assigned a RUCC (2013) code. We compared outcomes of participants from metro (defined as RUCC 1-3, which are central counties with ≥1 urban areas of ≥50,000) vs nonmetro counties (RUCC 4-9, which are counties with smaller urban areas as well as completely rural). We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) from univariable and multivariable Cox models for associations of metro status with overall survival (OS). Cause of death (lymphoma [including treatment related], non-lymphoma, unknown) was assessed using a competing risk approach.
Results: Compared with metro counties (N=6096), LEO participants from nonmetro counties (N=1514) were older (median age 64 vs 62 years; p<0.001), more likely to be non-Hispanic white (94% vs 75%; p<0.001) and married (84% vs 75%; p<0.001), and less likely to have completed graduate or professional school education (16% vs 27%; p<0.001). There were no notable differences (>5%) by metro status for sex, employment status, NHL subtype, stage, performance status, abnormal lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), international prognostic index (IPI), number of comorbidities, time from diagnosis to treatment interval (DTI) or participation in a clinical trial.
Compared with LEO participants from metro counties, those from nonmetro counties had inferior OS at 5 years (74.5% vs 78.4%; HR=1.23, CI 1.10-1.37; p<0.001). The OS association only slightly attenuated after adjustment for age, sex, race/ethnicity and NHL subtype (HR=1.20, CI 1.07-1.34; p=0.002), and held in models that adjusted for clinical prognostic factors (stage, NHL subtype, IPI, DTI), socioeconomic status (SES; education, marital status), health status (comorbidity, frailty), or lifestyle factors (smoking, body mass index). Using a competing risk model, the cumulative incidence of death at 5 years due to lymphoma (16.9% vs 14.1%; p=0.002) and non-lymphoma (5.9% vs 3.9%; p=0.002) was higher for participants from nonmetro vs metro counties, respectively.
For participants <65 years, nonmetro vs metro status had inferior OS (HR=1.40, CI 1.17-1.67; p<0.001). This association remained after adjustment for age, sex, race/ethnicity and NHL subtype (HR=1.36, CI 1.14-1.63; p<0.001), as well as after adjustment for clinical prognostic, SES, health status, or lifestyle factors. The cumulative incidence of death at 5 years due to lymphoma was higher in participants from nonmetro vs metro counties (15.1% vs 11.5%; p=0.002), while there was no difference by metro status for non-lymphoma related deaths (2.1% vs 1.7%; p=0.47).
In contrast, for participants age 65+ years, there was no differences by metro status for OS (HR=1.04, CI 0.91-1.20; p=0.56). After adjustment for age, sex, race/ethnicity and NHL subtype, participants from nonmetro areas had inferior OS (HR=1.12, 0.97-1.29) although this was not statistically significant (p=0.13), and was attenuated in models adjusting for clinical, health status, or lifestyle factors. The cumulative incidence of death at 5 years due to lymphoma was no different in participants from nonmetro vs metro counties (18.9% vs 18.0%; p=0.37), while non-lymphoma related deaths were higher in nonmetro counties (9.9% vs 6.8%; p=0.017).
Conclusion: LEO participants from nonmetro vs metro counties had inferior OS overall, although this was predominately observed for younger (<65 years) participants. These associations did not appear to be explained by demographic, NHL subtype, clinical, SES, health status, or lifestyle factors. Of particular note, the risk of death due to lymphoma was higher in nonmetro areas for participants <65 years but not those 65+ years, while the risk of death due to other causes was higher in nonmetro areas for participants 65+ years but not those <65 years. These findings require further study, particularly related to barriers to care, and suggest the potential need for age-specific strategies to optimize outcomes for NHL patients from nonmetro/rural areas.
